Satellite Customs Control

Summary: I. Introduction to Customs Satellite Control: I.1.- Definition. I.2.- Importance. II. Legal Framework: II.1.- International Treaties and Agreements. II.2.- Public and private domain satellites (Google, Starlink, etc.). III. Technology used: III.1.- Global positioning systems (GPS). III.2.- Satellite communications systems. III.3.- Satellite image technology. III.3.1.- Image analysis and Artificial Intelligence. IV. Use of integrated customs control systems. V.- The Argentine Case: V.1.- Argentine Satellite Situation. V.2.- The INVAP. V.2.1.- Upcoming launch of the “SABIA–Mar” Satellite for the control of the Argentine Sea. VI.- Conclusions.

I. Introduction

I.1.- Definition of customs satellite control

One of the most recent technological proposals to improve the efficiency of customs services in the fulfillment of their functions is the satellite customs control, a relatively new technology that has developed very strongly in recent decades. Although satellite images have been used to monitor maritime traffic and port activity since the 1970s, the use of satellites for customs control did not become widespread until the 2000s.

We can define customs satellite control, as the process of observation, analysis, investigation, inspection and supervision of the entry, exit and circulation of goods in a given spatial area through the use of satellite technology. Its main objectives are to detect and prevent illegal activities such as drug smuggling, poaching, import and export of prohibited or undeclared goods, tax evasion, deviation from authorized routes, among many others.

To achieve these objectives, customs satellite control systems use a variety of technological tools, such as satellite images, global positioning systems (GPS), satellite communications and other tracking systems that allow customs officials to monitor the traffic of vehicles, ships and aircraft, as well as detect the presence of suspicious objects and goods.

I.2.- Importance of customs satellite control

Satellite customs control is of great importance for the exercise of sovereignty and for strengthening the security and protection of a country, since it allows access to border points that are difficult to access as well as to extensive areas where the permanent physical presence of control officials is impossible, as occurs in adjacent maritime spaces.

Satellites can detect the movements of suspicious vessels, aircraft and trucks and monitor their activity “in real time.” 

Satellite data can be used to analyse traffic and trade patterns in specific areas. This can help customs officials – through the use of artificial intelligence – to identify anomalies in activity patterns and take steps to analyse and investigate the commission of possible illicit activities.

Undoubtedly, this method of control helps to improve the efficiency of customs services by allowing the rapid detection of illegal activity, making it possible to act in a surgical (precise) manner with the consequent reduction of associated costs.

As an example, we can mention that in 2022, the Spanish Customs Surveillance Agency announced the signing of an agreement for the purchase of satellite radar images to strengthen the fight against drug trafficking. The objective is to detect vessels that hide their position or transmit a false location; the provider is a private company that will provide this service for one year in exchange for 160.228 euros (Salvador, 2022).

In the United States, the US Customs and Border Protection and the Department of Homeland Security have launched several advanced satellite systems to monitor the country's borders. These new systems include the Space-Based Infrared Systems, known by the acronym SBIRS, and the Wide Area Surveillance System, known as WAAS. 

SBIRS is capable of detecting people crossing borders through infrared images and sounds, while WAAS can monitor and map objects in real time.

The use of satellite technology for border surveillance has already had a major impact on reducing illegal immigration. In 2019, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) said that the use of satellite technology had been key to the agency being able to identify and stop more than 32.000 attempted illegal immigrations along the southwest border.

Satellite monitoring is currently used by the Korean Customs Service, Australian Border Force, General Administration of Customs of China, and the Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA), among others.

II. Legal Framework for Customs Satellite Control

II.1.- International Treaties and Agreements 

There are several international treaties that regulate airspace and related activities. Among the most relevant we can mention:

• Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944, also known as the “Chicago Convention” It is an international treaty that regulates international civil aviation. Signed in Chicago on December 7, 1944 by 52 countries, it came into force on April 4, 1947. Argentina joined the agreement on June 4, 1946.

The Chicago Convention establishes a series of rules and principles for the regulation of civil aviation, including the creation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a UN agency charged with promoting the safety and development of international civil aviation worldwide. It also established the principle of freedom of the air, which allows civil aircraft to fly over the territory of other states without prior authorization, and set the standards for international air navigation, the regulation of air services, and aviation safety. (Government of Mexico, 2023)

• United Nations Treaty and Principles on Outer Space, 1967 

This instrument deals with what corresponds to outer space, known simply as “Space Treaty”, was signed on January 27, 1967, has been ratified by more than 100 countries and remains one of the main legal instruments on space activities. The Argentine Republic joined on April 18, 1967 and was ratified on March 26, 1969. (My Argentina, 2023)

The Space Treaty specifies the principles that should govern the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, as well as in relation to satellites orbiting the Earth, the Moon and other celestial bodies. (UNOOSA, 2023)

It provides that such bodies may not be subject to national appropriation or acquired by military means. It also provides that the exploration and use of outer space must be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries and for peaceful purposes. 

• International Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972. This Convention establishes the rules on civil liability for damage caused by space objects on Earth and in space. It was signed on March 29, 1972 and entered into force on September 1, 1972. It has been ratified by more than 80 countries and is considered key in terms of civil liability for space activities. (United Nations, 2023). The Convention was signed by the Argentine Republic on March 29, 1972 and approved by the National Congress on 30/07/86 by Law No. 23.335.

It establishes that states are responsible for damage caused in their territory or in the territory of other states by space objects owned or controlled by those states. It also establishes a system of notifications and consultations between affected states in the event of an incident and a system of compensation for victims of damage caused by space objects. 

As for the number of satellites in orbit and the altitude each satellite occupies, there is no specific law, but there are government regulations that set limits and guidelines for the use of outer space and low Earth orbit and the resulting collaboration between agencies. For example, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the radio frequency used by satellites and sets guidelines to prevent interference between satellites and ground operations. In addition, space agencies and private companies often follow certain criteria in defining orbital altitudes to ensure efficient and safe operation and to avoid collisions between different satellites. In addition to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC), other governmental and international organizations also set limits and guidelines for satellite orbit. For example, the European Space Agency and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) work closely with the FCC to establish guidelines and regulations related to the use of space and satellite orbit. 

These agreements and treaties are the basis for national regulations related to customs satellite control. 

Treaties and International Agreements related to satellite customs control 

There are several international treaties and agreements related to satellite customs control, some of the most relevant are the following:

• International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Revised Kyoto Convention): This World Customs Organization (WCO) treaty sets international standards for customs administration and international trade, including the use of technologies for customs supervision and control. The use of satellite control systems in international trade is covered by Chapter 7 of the Revised Kyoto Convention of the World Customs Organization (WCO), which focuses on the use of information and communication technologies to improve customs management. In particular, Article 7.6 of the Convention states that member countries should consider the use of tracking and tracing technologies to improve security and efficiency in the logistics chain of international trade, and to ensure compliance with customs regulations. In addition, Article 7.7 of the Convention specifically mentions the use of satellite tracking systems as one of the technologies that can be used for this purpose, along with others such as radio frequency identification (RFID), electronic data communication and non-intrusive scanning technology. (WCO, 2008)
• Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) of the World Trade Organization (WTO): This instrument sets standards and best practices for trade facilitation and customs management. The TFA recognizes the importance of information and communications technology for trade facilitation, and encourages member countries to adopt and use electronic and automated systems to streamline and improve customs and logistics procedures. However, no specific rules have been established on the use of satellite monitoring systems in international trade. (WTO, 2017)
• International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS): This treaty establishes international standards for the safety of ships and the prevention of marine pollution, including the obligation of ships to transmit identification and location information to port authorities. (IMO, International Maritime Organization, 1974)
• Schengen Agreement: This agreement between European countries establishes the free movement of people between member countries, but also sets standards for cooperation in the fight against crime and border security, including the use of technologies for customs control and surveillance. (Department of National Security Government of Spain, 2021)
• International Convention for the Security of Ships and Port Facilities (ISPS Code): This treaty of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) establishes standards for the protection of ships and port facilities against acts of terrorism and other illegal acts, and encourages the use of technologies for customs surveillance and control. (IMO, International Maritime Organization, 2004)

II.2.- Governmental and private satellites and applications of non-profit non-governmental organizations 

With the advancement of technology, costs have been reduced, which has allowed space exploration and the use of space to no longer be the exclusive domain of traditional state powers, allowing private companies to enter the satellite services market. Therefore, there is now a combination of private companies, government organizations and public organizations that exploit the use of satellites for various purposes. Some examples are mentioned below:

Government Organizations:

• NASA: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is a United States government agency responsible for space research and exploration. Its activities include the development and launching of satellites for various scientific applications. https://www.nasa.gov/ 
• THAT: The European Space Agency (ESA) is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space and the promotion of space research and technology in Europe. ESA develops and operates a wide range of space missions, including the launch of satellites for a variety of applications. https://www.esa.int/ 
• JAXA: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is a Japanese government agency responsible for research and development in space technology. JAXA develops and launches satellites for a variety of scientific and technological applications. https://www.jaxa.jp/ 
• Roscosmos: Russian State Space Corporation is a Russian state-owned organization responsible for the space flight and cosmonautics program. In 2015, the Russian government merged the Federal Space Agency with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the renationalized Russian space industry, to create the State Space Corporation “Roscosmos”. https://www.roscosmos.ru/ 

Private domain:

• Maxar Technologies: Maxar was founded in 2017, with the merger of DigitalGlobe and MDA Holdings Company. Since then, the firm has worked to promote “access to the full spectrum of imagery, analytical capabilities, and expertise to advance global transparency.” In May 2019, Maxar was chosen as the power and propulsion element provider for NASA’s Lunar Gateway. However, as of 2022, it has become better known, thanks to its help to Ukraine in its war with Russia.

On March 1, 2022, Maxar technicians alerted Ukraine to the arrival of hundreds of Russian military vehicles in Kyiv, thereby removing the element of surprise from the Russian troops’ movement, allowing the Ukrainians to prepare to defend the city. According to the company’s website, Maxar has “the world’s largest constellation of high-resolution commercial satellites,” although no specific number of satellites is provided.  https://www.maxar.com/  

• BlackSky Global: BlackSky Global is a subsidiary of Seattle-based Spaceflight. It offers real-time satellite imagery and global monitoring services through its own constellation of satellites. The company delivers high-resolution geospatial data using advanced artificial intelligence technologies and data fusion from multiple sensors. Through its platform, users can monitor critical situations such as military surveillance, urban planning, and environmental monitoring in real time. They intend to deploy a fleet of 60 microsatellites to deliver on-demand high-resolution imagery of any location on the planet in near real time.
• SpaceX: SpaceX is an American company founded by Elon Musk dedicated to the design, manufacture, and launch of rockets and spacecraft. The company has launched several satellites for various applications, including communications and Earth observation. Starlink is a project by the American company SpaceX to provide high-speed internet services globally through a constellation of satellites in low Earth orbit. The idea behind Starlink is to create a global network of satellites that can provide high-speed, low-latency internet connectivity to areas where current connectivity is limited or non-existent. The Starlink satellite constellation is designed to work in conjunction with ground stations and a fiber optic network. This constellation is expected to be able to provide high-speed, low-latency internet services to places where ground connections are slow, expensive, or simply unavailable. SpaceX has launched several batches of Starlink satellites since 2019, and is currently in the process of building and launching many more satellites to improve network coverage and capacity. The project has generated great expectations for its ability to revolutionize connectivity around the world, especially in rural and remote areas. https://www.spacex.com/ 
• Amazon: Amazon is an American e-commerce company that has entered the satellite business. The company has developed the Kuiper project, a constellation of satellites to provide high-speed internet services in remote areas. https://www.aboutamazon.com/news/tag/project-kuiper 
• OneWeb: OneWeb is a British company that has developed a constellation of satellites to provide high-speed internet services in remote areas. The company has launched several satellites and plans to launch many more in the coming years. https://oneweb.net/ 
• Planet Labs: Planet Labs is a private American company founded in 2010 that is dedicated to the capture and processing of high-resolution, real-time satellite images of the Earth. The company uses a constellation of small satellites, known as CubeSats, to capture images of the Earth's surface, allowing it to offer services for monitoring, analysis and management of natural resources, agriculture, climate change, security and defense, among others.

Planet Labs' satellite constellation consists of more than 150 CubeSats in low Earth orbit, allowing it to take high-resolution images of the entire world on a daily basis. The company has also developed a data management and analysis platform called Planet Explorer, which allows its customers to access and analyze satellite imagery in real time. https://www.planet.com/ 

• Google: In 2014, Google acquired the company Skybox Imaging, which developed and operated Earth observation satellites. Since then, Google has launched several additional satellites under the umbrella of the Terra Bella subsidiary (formerly Skybox Imaging). Google satellites are used for a variety of applications, including Earth observation, mapping, and data collection for use in Google Maps and other services. Satellites have also been used in humanitarian aid projects, such as monitoring natural disasters and assessing the situation in conflict areas.

In 2017, Google (Alphabet) sold its subsidiary Terra Bella to the American company Planet Labs. However, it still maintains an interest in developing and using satellite technology for its services and projects. https://www.zdnet.com/article/alphabet-to-sell-skybox-satellite-business-to-planet-labs-report/ 

Non-profit non-governmental organizations:

Among the initiatives that stand out at the level of non-governmental organizations, the following stands out: QGIS It is a free, open source, easy-to-use professional Geographic Information System that enables the creation, visualization, analysis, editing and publication of geospatial information based on a multitude of data. 

As QGIS is collaborative and open source, it provides a growing range of capabilities through its core functions and add-ons. It allows you to view, manage, edit and analyse data, and design printable maps, geolocating each user's data, through a set of applications for managing spatial data.

QGIS makes it possible to monitor changes in the Earth's crust, such as calculating the degree of glacier retreat. It is also possible to manage and respond to emergencies, as it provides real-time situational information; with QGIS, hurricane and cyclone maps can be generated showing the potential impacts to people and infrastructure, according to the probable paths of storms and storm surges, allowing authorities to take measures in advance.

Overall, QGIS enables you to identify problems that have a geographic component ranging from prescription drug demand to reveal geographic patterns of disease outbreaks and severity, to establishing public safety priorities based on spatial analysis, geolocating crimes to create patterns, and allowing public safety officials to identify risk areas and define prevention strategies. Likewise, the power of geospatial analysis allows customs and defense organizations to identify risk areas and help customs and military personnel manage, analyze and integrate geospatial data across all areas of responsibility making better tactical decisions, being able to stay on top of daily operations through real-time monitoring and tracking. 

III. Technology used in customs satellite control

Customs satellite control can make use of various technologies and tools to track and monitor the international flow of goods. Some of the most common technologies used in customs satellite control include:

• Global positioning systems (GPS).
• Satellite images.
• Satellite communication systems.

III.1.- Global positioning systems (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite navigation technology that allows the exact location of an object or person to be determined anywhere in the world.

It was developed by the United States Department of Defense in the 1970s as a satellite navigation system for military use. The project was initiated by the Department of Defense in 1973, and the first satellite was launched in 1978.

GPS was developed by a team of scientists and engineers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), working in collaboration with the Department of Defense. GPS development took place over a period of several years, and the complete system was put into operation in 1995.

Since then, GPS has become a widely used navigation and location tool around the world, not only in military applications, but also in civilian applications, such as vehicle navigation, air and maritime navigation, customs satellite control, geolocation of people and objects, and many other uses.

GPS consists of a network of satellites orbiting the Earth that transmit radio signals to receivers on the ground. These receivers can receive the signals and calculate their exact location from the information provided by the satellites.

GPS is used in a variety of applications, including vehicle and aircraft navigation, tracking the location of people and objects, and satellite-based customs control, among others.

In satellite-based customs control, GPS is used to track the movement of vehicles and goods in transit, and the information provided by GPS can be used to detect possible deviations, irregularities or violations of the law.

There are networks similar to the Global Positioning System that also provide satellite navigation and positioning services. Some of these networks are:

• Galileo system: is a network of satellite navigation satellites developed by the European Union. Like GPS, the Galileo system uses a network of satellites orbiting the Earth to provide navigation and location information to users.
• GLONASS system: is a network of satellite navigation satellites developed by Russia. Like GPS and Galileo, the GLONASS system is known for its high accuracy, especially in regions near the North Pole, where GPS can sometimes have problems.
• Beidou: is a satellite navigation network developed by China. Like GPS, the Beidou system uses a network of satellites orbiting the Earth to provide navigation and location information to users.
• MSAS, Japanese satellite navigation system, limited to Japanese air zones,

These networks are similar to GPS in terms of their ability to provide satellite-based navigation and location information, but each has its own unique characteristics and technical specifications.

The best example of the use of this technology is the Electronic Container Seals, which were specifically developed for satellite tracking of cargo units. All the parameters of the route to be followed are programmed into them and they are firmly placed on the rear door of the container. Once activated, the electronic seal reports, in real time, all the events and alarms that occur during the trip, allowing constant traceability and control of the cargo unit until its final destination. (In Argentine Customs, this control system has been implemented since 2002 -Res. Gral. AFIP No. 1331/02- and then strengthened through the “Customs Transit Security Initiative” (ISTA) and the “Single Customs Monitoring Center” (CUMA), with excellent results.)

At an international level, we cannot fail to mention the initiative carried out by the main container transport industries, which at the end of 2018 created a non-profit entity: Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA), with the aim of promoting standardization, digitalization and interoperability in container transport. In this sense, work is being done on the harmonization of standards to make the massive implementation of satellite tracking systems for these cargo units. (DCSA, 2023)

The development and evolution of this technology will be deeply impacted and driven by the fifth generation of wireless technology (5G) that will allow much higher connection speeds (between 100 and 250 times faster than the fastest 4G networks), with connections of up to 20 gigabits per second and latencies of 1 millisecond (the delay between sending and receiving information), which opens up a new ecosystem of emerging technologies that will allow us to operate in real time, without perceptible delays or latencies.

III.2. Satellite communications systems

Satellite communications systems use satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit and receive communications signals. These satellite communications systems are used by a variety of users, including businesses, government organizations, non-profit organizations, and individual consumers. They enable real-time communication anywhere in the world, making them especially useful for emergency situations, for communication in remote areas, and for commercial and government applications that require secure and reliable communications.

Some of the most widely used satellite communications systems are:

• Inmarsat Satellite Communications System: is a global satellite communications system that provides voice, data and broadband communications services to users around the world.
• Global Mobile Satellite Communications System (GMPCS): is a mobile satellite communications system that allows communication from anywhere in the world, even in remote and rural areas where terrestrial networks are not available.
• Thuraya Satellite Communications System: is a satellite communications system that provides voice, data and messaging services to users in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia.
• Iridium Satellite Communications System is a global satellite communications system that provides voice and data services to users around the world, including in remote and maritime areas.
• Globalstar Satellite Communications System: is a satellite communications system that provides voice and data services to users around the world, including remote areas and sea lanes.

III.3.- Satellite imaging technology

Satellite imaging technology is a technique that allows images and data of the Earth's surface to be captured from satellites in orbit around the Earth. This technology has advanced greatly in recent years, and today satellites can capture high-resolution images and accurate data in “real time”. 

Earth observation satellites are equipped with cameras and sensors that can capture images of the Earth's surface in different wavelengths. This allows scientists and data analysts to gain insight into specific terrain features. U.S. federal regulations limit images taken by commercial satellites to a resolution of 25 centimeters, or about the length of a man's shoe, however, military spy satellites can capture much more detailed images.

And just as satellite images offer higher resolution, the possibility of taking images more frequently is also increasing. According to publications from the MIT Technology Review, in 2008, there were only 150 Earth observation satellites in orbit; now the number has reached 768. That number of satellites allows images of an area to be taken several times a day. For example, Planet Labs already has more than 140 satellites, with which it could take images of all places on Earth once a day. On the other hand, there is the company Maxar, which is building a constellation of satellites, WorldView, GeoEye and DigitalGlobe, which will be able to capture all places in the world about 15 times a day. And even more impressive is the proposal from BlackSky Global, which promises to capture images of most of the world's major cities up to 70 times a day with its fleet of satellites. (Beam, 2019)

In addition to cameras, satellites can also be equipped with other sensors, such as radar, which can penetrate through cloud cover and darkness to provide high-resolution images and data of the Earth's surface. Data collected by satellites can be processed and analyzed to gain valuable insights into a wide range of applications, including agriculture, surveying, security, urban planning, disaster management, environmental monitoring, and more.

Satellite imaging technology is widely used in many sectors, such as precision agriculture, natural resource exploration, infrastructure management, urban planning, security and defense, among others. Data collected by satellites is also used for scientific research and environmental studies.

In terms of customs control, satellite imaging technology, as we mentioned, is a very valuable tool. Earth observation satellites can provide high-resolution images and accurate real-time data to help security authorities detect and monitor activity at borders and other critical areas.

For example, satellite images are used to monitor traffic on roads and entry and exit points at ports and airports. Satellites can also detect changes in vegetation and terrain, the construction of clandestine runways, which may indicate human activity or drug and smuggling trafficking.

In addition to visual imagery, satellites can also collect infrared and radar data that can be used to detect objects and activities that would otherwise be invisible to conventional surveillance systems.

Satellite imaging technology is also used to monitor illegal fishing, deforestation and other illicit activities that can have a negative impact on regional economies, the environment and national security.

Data collected by satellites can be processed and analysed using artificial intelligence techniques to detect patterns and anomalies that may indicate suspicious activities. This can help security authorities take preventive measures and maintain security and order at borders. (WCO Research Unit, 2019)

III.3.1.- Satellite Image Analysis and Artificial Intelligence

Satellite image analysis is the process of interpreting images captured by satellites and deriving useful information from them. Data collected by satellites can be analyzed in many ways to gain insights into the earth and human activities.

Satellite image analysis involves a series of steps and techniques, which may vary depending on the objective of the analysis and the tools used. 

Among the most commonly used steps and techniques in satellite image analysis are:

1. Data Acquisition: This step involves obtaining raw satellite imagery, which can be downloaded from various data resources such as Google Earth Engine, NASA Earth Observations, or acquired through commercial satellite imagery platforms such as BlackSky and Maxar Technologies.
2. Data pre-processing: This step includes correcting errors such as geometric and radiometric distortion in the image, removing clouds and shadows, and removing noise and other inconsistencies. Color and brightness adjustments may also be performed.
3. Image enhancement analysis: Various enhancement techniques are used to improve the visual quality or information of the image to facilitate visual interpretation, such as contrast enhancement, edge enhancement, atmosphere correction, color categorization, and others.
4. Image segmentation: This step involves partitioning the image into distinct regions with homogeneous characteristics. Segmentation is used to facilitate the analysis of specific objects in the image and their classification.
5. Image Classification: This step involves assigning categories to the segmented regions based on their spectral content and other attributes. For example, vegetation, urban, water, bare soil, etc. areas can be classified.
6. Analysis and validation of results: Once the data has been pre-processed, segmented and classified, other analysis techniques can be performed to obtain derived information, such as change detection, trend assessment, or identification of patterns and anomalies. It is important to validate the results of the analysis to ensure their accuracy. (EOS Data Analytics, 2020)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being used for satellite image analysis. AI’s ability to process large amounts of image data and learn from patterns in the data can significantly improve the accuracy and efficiency of satellite image analysis.

Overall, AI can significantly improve the accuracy and efficiency of satellite image analysis by detecting changes on the ground that might otherwise go unnoticed by the human eye.

There are several AI approaches used in satellite image analysis, including:

• Supervised learning: Used to train an AI model to identify specific features in images, such as urban areas, bodies of water, or vegetation. The model is trained with a labeled dataset containing examples of the features to be identified.
• Unsupervised learning: This is used to identify patterns and features in images without the need for labeled data. The AI ​​model analyzes the image data and looks for similarities and differences in the patterns.
• Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) – A deep learning technique used to analyze images in layers. Initial layers identify simple features such as lines and edges, while later layers identify more complex features.
• Object Detection: Used to identify specific objects in images, such as buildings, vehicles, or people. The AI ​​model is trained to recognize specific features of the objects to be detected. (Global Investigative Journalism Network, 2022)

IV.- Use of integrated customs control systems

The use of integrated technology systems is essential for efficient and effective customs control. These systems allow the integration and coordination of various technologies, such as satellite imaging technology, satellite communications systems, global positioning systems (GPS), radio frequency identification technology (RFID), among others, to improve the accuracy and effectiveness of customs control.

An example of an integrated technology system is the system used at the Port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands, which combines radio frequency identification (RFID) technology, global positioning systems (GPS) and camera systems to monitor ship, container and cargo traffic. This system enables effective management and coordination of port logistics and early detection of potential threats. (CT Strategies, 2023)

Another very representative example is the so-called “CONTAINER 42 Project”, a state-of-the-art container equipped with sensors that allow it to collect information on vibrations, tone, position, noise, air pollution, humidity and temperature around it. This “smart” container set sail from the Port of Rotterdam on May 26, 2019, for a two-year research trip in which it collected valuable information from its journey through the main ports of the world, sending the data via satellite to the cloud for collection and analysis for better port operations. The Container was built at the Port of Rotterdam in collaboration with IBM, Cisco, Esri, Axians, Intel, HyET Solar and DR Group. (WE ARE 42, 2023)

In conclusion, the use of integrated technology systems is essential for effective customs control in different areas, such as borders, ports and airports. These systems allow the integration of various technologies to improve the accuracy and effectiveness of customs control and the early detection of potential threats.

IV. The Argentine Case: 

IV.1.- Argentine Satellite Situation.

Argentina has several satellite control systems in operation. One of the main ones is the Mission Control Center (CCM) of the National Commission for Space Activities (CONAE), which is responsible for controlling and operating Argentine satellites and those of other countries that have cooperation agreements with Argentina. The CCM is located in the city of Córdoba and has a state-of-the-art infrastructure for receiving, processing and distributing satellite data.

In addition, CONAE also has the Balcarce ground station, located in the province of Buenos Aires, which is used to receive and process data from Earth observation and communications satellites.

Another important satellite control system in Argentina is the Satellite Communications Industrial Complex (CICOM), located in the province of Mendoza. This center is operated by the state-owned company AR-SAT and is responsible for controlling and operating Argentine communications satellites.

Overall, Argentina has a significant presence in the satellite industry and has a solid infrastructure and highly trained personnel in satellite control systems.

Argentina has several satellites in orbit and others in the development stage. Among the satellites in orbit are:

• SAC-D/Aquarius: a scientific Earth observation satellite, launched in 2011 in collaboration with NASA.
• ARSAT 1, 2 and 3: three communications satellites, launched in 2014, 2015 and 2019, respectively.
• SAOCOM 1A and 1B: two Earth observation satellites in the SAOCOM series, which were launched in 2018 and 2020, respectively.
• ÑuSat 1 and 2: two Earth observation microsatellites, launched in 2016.
• Manolito: an experimental nanosatellite, launched in 2019.

In addition, Argentina has several satellite projects under development, including:

• SAOCOM-CS: a SAOCOM series satellite with radar capability for observing the Earth's surface and detecting natural disasters.
• Tronador II: a domestically manufactured rocket that will be used to launch satellites.
• SABIA-Mar: an Earth observation satellite with maritime applications, developed in collaboration with Brazil.

These satellites in orbit and the projects in development reflect an important development of the space industry in the region. (CONAE, 2023)

IV.2.- INVAP

INVAP is an Argentine company dedicated to the development and manufacturing of high-level technologies, including satellite systems, medical equipment, nuclear control systems, among others. The company was founded in 1976 and is headquartered in the city of San Carlos de Bariloche, in the province of Río Negro.

In the satellite field, INVAP has developed Earth observation satellites, telecommunications satellites and scientific satellites. In addition, the company has participated in international projects, such as the development of satellites for the European Space Agency.

In the medical field, INVAP has developed high-tech medical equipment, such as radiotherapy systems and diagnostic imaging equipment, which are used in hospitals and clinics around the world.

In the area of ​​nuclear control, INVAP has developed control and safety systems for nuclear plants and has participated in the construction of nuclear reactors in different countries. (INVAP, 2023)

IV.3.- Upcoming launch of the SABIA – Mar Satellite for the control of the Argentine Sea.

The SABIA-Mar satellite is a joint project between Argentina's National Commission for Space Activities (CONAE) and the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) to develop an Earth observation satellite with maritime applications. The acronym "SABIA-Mar" stands for "Argentine-Brazilian System of Environmental Information for Marine Management."

The objective of the SABIA-Mar satellite is to improve the capacity of Argentina and Brazil to monitor and manage marine resources, including fishing, aquaculture, navigation and hydrocarbon exploration. The satellite will carry state-of-the-art instruments for remote sensing of the oceans, including a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and a microwave radiometer.

Given the permanent threat of foreign fleets fishing on the edge of Argentina's exclusive economic zone, the numerous detected cases of furtive entry into national sovereign space (after disconnection from the mandatory geolocation system), the enormous extension of the maritime border and the scarcity of material resources (a sufficient maritime fleet to allow a permanent presence), satellite control is presented as an optimal control alternative. 

The SABIA-Mar project was launched in 2009. The satellite is currently under construction in Argentina, with the participation of public institutions and companies from the scientific and technical system, including: INVAP, VENG, the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA), the University of La Plata (UNLP), IMER and Ascentio. SABIA-Mar is scheduled to be launched into orbit in 2024 by a rocket from the Kourou space base in French Guiana. (OSCAR, 2022)

V.- Conclusions 

There is no doubt that satellite customs control is here to stay. It is a technological tool that allows for optimal monitoring of borders and the movement of goods, particularly for those countries with vast territorial extensions and difficult-to-access or vulnerable points.

The implementation of these technologies requires significant investment in infrastructure. In this sense, countries with advanced development in this industry have a notable competitive advantage. Argentina and Brazil are prominent examples in Latin America, with 39 and 17 satellites in orbit respectively. These numbers contrast with the global total of 6.718 satellites in orbit, where the United States and China lead with 4.529 and 590 satellites respectively (UCS Satellite Database, 2023).

Furthermore, it is essential to consider investing in human resource training, given that we are dealing with a highly specialized and technical field that demands a high level of knowledge and skills in areas such as electronics, computing, artificial intelligence, telecommunications, image analysis and aerospace engineering.

It is crucial to establish clear regulatory frameworks that protect the privacy and rights of individuals, while allowing customs authorities and other relevant law enforcement agencies to take full advantage of these tools.

Strategic and forward-looking vision is essential in this context. We are faced with a technology that is constantly developing and in the process of consolidation. Collaboration between various areas and government agencies, the private sector and academia is crucial.

It is understandable that the adoption of new technologies can present challenges, resistance and may require significant changes in the way some areas of control operate. However, it is important to remember that we live in an era of rapid and constant technological advances. Adapting to these changes is not only an option, but a necessity to remain competitive and relevant in the international trade arena.

---

Bibliography: 

Beam, C. (26, July 2019). Retrieved from MIT Technology Review: www.technologyreview.es

BlackSky. (2023). Black Sky Tech. Retrieved from https://www.blacksky.com/

Documentation Center, I. and (July 1, 2006). Obtained from www.diputados.gob.mx: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/sedia/sia/spe/SPE-ISS-02-06.pdf

CT Strategies. (2023). CT Strategies. Retrieved from https://ct-strategies.com/en/2019/11/06/technology-serving-logistics-rotterdam-2/

Department of National Security Government of Spain. (June 17, 2021). Department of Homeland SecurityObtained from the New Schengen Area Strategy: https://www.dsn.gob.es/es/actualidad/sala-prensa/nueva-estrategia-espacio-schengen

Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA) https://dcsa.org/

EOS Data Analytics. (2020). EOS Data Analytics. Retrieved from https://eos.com/blog/space-analysis/

Ewing, W. (April 15, 2010). americanimmigrationcouncil.org. Retrieved from www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org: https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/SBInet_-_Looking_for_a_Quick_Fix_041510.pdf

Global Investigative Journalism Network . (June 7, 2022). Global Investigative Journalism Network . Retrieved from https://gijn.org/2022/06/07/espanol-ia-imagenes-satellites/

Mexican Government. (2023). Obtained from portales.segob.gob.mx/: http://portales.segob.gob.mx/

MyArgentina. (2023). argentina.gob.arObtained from Mi Argentina: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/buscar/Asuntos%20Satelitales

United Nations. (2023). Retrieved from United Nations: https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf

OMA. (April 17, 2008). www.wcoomd.org. Retrieved from wcoomd: https://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/facilitation/instrument-and-tools/conventions/pf_revised_kyoto_conv/kyoto_new/kyoto_new_es.aspx

WTO. (22 February 2017). World Trade Organization. Retrieved from www.wto.org: https://www.wto.org/spanish/tratop_e/tradfa_e/tradfa_e.htm#II

IMO, International Maritime Organization. (1 July 2004). The ISPS Code and Chapter XI -2 of the SOLAS Convention. Obtained from International Maritime Organization: https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/SOLAS-XI-2%20ISPS%20Code.aspx

IMO, International Maritime Organization. (November 1, 1974). International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS Convention). Retrieved from International Maritime Organization: https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS)%2C-1974.aspx

OSCAR. (2022). Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review tool. Retrieved from https://space.oscar.wmo.int/satellites/view/sac_e_sabia_mar_a

Salvador, A. (January 10, 2022). https://www.elindependiente.com. Obtained from https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2022/01/10/vigilancia-aduanera-compra-imagenes-de-radar-por-satelite-para-reforzar-la-lucha-contra-el-narcotrafico/

Sharda. (November 4, 2018). marineinsight.com. Retrieved from https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-law/a-general-overview-of-maritime-domain-awareness-mda/

Union, E. (2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/glossary/galileo.html

UNOOSA. (2023). Retrieved from United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs : https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf

UCS Satellite Database (July 05, 2023) https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database and illustrated at https://billiken.lat/interesante/argentina-es-el-pais-latinoamericano-con-mas-satelites-en-orbita/

WCO Research Unit. (June 2019). World Commerce Org. Retrieved from https://mag.wcoomd.org/magazine/wco-news-89/potential-uses-of-geodata-for-border-management/

WE ARE 42 (2023) https://weare42.io/