MERCOSUR at a crossroads: challenges and opportunities in the current global context

Aduana News thanks Dr. Héctor Juárez Allende for his guidance prior to writing this article..

Introduction

MERCOSUR, a bloc that was initially considered the great promise of South American integration, now faces a series of challenges that call into question its viability and relevance in the current global context. In a scenario marked by the uncertainty surrounding the agreement with the European Union, internal tensions, such as those arising from the crisis in the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway, and the possible search for new avenues by member countries like Argentina, the question arises: what future awaits MERCOSUR?

On March 26, in commemoration of MERCOSUR Day, we celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Asunción in 1991, an agreement that sought to cement the foundations for regional economic integration. More than three decades later, the bloc is experiencing an identity crisis, marked by the weakening of intraregional trade, internal political tensions, and the threat of new alliances that could fragment its structure.

This work, prepared especially for the occasion, will explore the evolution of Mercosur through various points of view. First, it will analyze historical achievements in customs integration, such as the creation of the Common External Tariff (CET), the Mercosur Origin Regime, the Integrated International Customs Transit System (SINTIA), and the Integrated Control and Trade Facilitation Areas. It will also review the influence of the Mercosur Customs Code and the INDIRA System for customs information exchange.

Secondly, we will delve into the MERCOSUR-European Union Agreement, exploring its complex negotiating history, recent updates, and the obstacles hindering its ratification.

The third point will address the bloc's internal tensions and its external relations, with a particular focus on the diplomatic crisis over the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway and the challenge posed by the relationship between regional integration and growing individual trade alliances.

Finally, the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA Plus) will be examined, highlighting progress in its implementation, the benefits it has brought to member countries, and the challenges that remain.

This analysis seeks to offer a comprehensive overview of the MERCOSUR integration process, addressing both the achievements and the obstacles member countries still face on their path toward more effective integration.

Development

1. Evolution of Mercosur and its Impact on Regional Integration

1.1. Historical Achievements

 Since its founding with the Treaty of Asunción in 1991, MERCOSUR has undertaken a long journey of integration in customs and trade matters.  In recent years, it has managed to consolidate structures and mechanisms that have allowed for greater policy harmonization, but it still faces significant challenges in its evolution toward a full customs union and an effective common market. 

Key achievements in Customs Integration are summarized below:

•  Establishment of the Common External Tariff (CET) (with exceptions)

Article 1 of the Treaty of Asunción establishes the Common External Tariff (CET) of MERCOSUR, which replaces the individual tariff rates of each Member State toward third countries. This CET is based on the nomenclature of the Harmonized System and was incorporated into the Economic Complementation Agreement No. 18 (ACE No. 18). Its implementation, according to doctors Tristán Conde and Héctor H. Juárez in Mercosur's customs footprints, has allowed for greater harmonization of trade policies in the region, establishing a Mercosur Common Nomenclature (NCM) that facilitates the exchange and classification of goods.

The CET has 11 tariff levels ranging from 0% to 20%, with the possibility of applying a temporary tariff of up to 35% in some cases, in accordance with WTO commitments. In addition, special transitional regimes have been implemented for sectors such as the automotive and pulp industries. Although there are exceptions to the CET, these have been gradually reduced, with a schedule of adjustments that made significant progress in 2023 for Paraguay and 2022 for Uruguay and Venezuela. 

One benefit of the CET is the simplification and unification of customs tariffs within MERCOSUR, which fosters greater economic integration and facilitates trade among member states by eliminating internal trade barriers.

• Creation of a Mercosur Regime of Origin

Additionally, the new Mercosur Regime of Origin (ROM), approved at the bloc's Summit of Presidents on July 18, 2024, entered into force on July 4, 2023. This regime was incorporated into the domestic law of all member countries, with the corresponding notification within Mercosur. The new rules, which include CMC Decision No. 05/23 on the ROM and CMC Decision No. 06/23 on special and differential treatment (SDT), replace previous regulations and seek to make trade procedures more flexible and simpler.

According to Lic. Andrea Russo, in her note of June 21, 2024 (2) The implementation of this regime is of great importance, as it represents a significant change by replacing all previous regulations and allowing greater flexibility in procedures. According to Mr. Carlos Canta Yoy (3), among the most significant modifications are changes to the certificate of origin forms, the introduction of a "Proof of Origin" that combines traditional certificates with declarations of origin, and the option of self-certification for exporters. Furthermore, the status of originating products is extended to those from countries with preferential agreements with MERCOSUR. Other important changes include the extension of the regime's validity until July 18, 2024, the simplification of the criteria for determining origin, the definition of the CIF value for non-originating materials, and the acceptance of digital certificates with the same validity as traditional ones.

• Implementation of International Customs Transit (SINTIA)

A significant advance in customs integration is the SINTIA System (International Customs Transit Information System). According to an article by Dr. Héctor Juárez Allende, (4)This system began to take shape with the approval of GMC Resolution No. 17/04 during the 25th Ordinary Meeting of the MERCOSUR Common Market Group, held on June 2004, XNUMX, in Buenos Aires. This resolution marked the beginning of the computerization of customs transit between member countries, facilitating the monitoring of customs operations at the regional level.

SINTIA is designed for the real-time electronic transmission of information between the customs offices of the MERCOSUR member states. Its application covers both land and river transit and has its roots in the Agreement on International Land Transport (ATIT) of the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway River Transport Agreement. Since 2009, the system has been implemented on land between Argentina and Paraguay, and has been progressively extended to other countries such as Uruguay, Bolivia, and Chile, although Brazil has not yet fully adopted it.

The system is event-oriented, transmitting information based on customs transit milestones, such as officialization, departure, entry, and completion of transit, among others. In the river sector, implementation began in 2019, specifically on the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway, with a pilot plan involving Argentina, Paraguay, and other countries in the region.

According to Dr. Juárez, SINTIA offers multiple advantages, such as reduced wait times and greater efficiency, security, and transparency in customs operations. These improvements translate into lower costs and more streamlined management of goods in transit. Furthermore, the system is aligned with international standards established by the World Customs Organization (WCO), such as the SAFE Framework of Standards, which promotes the electronic exchange of information and traceability of logistics chains.

The article also points to possible future improvements, such as the integration of emerging technologies like blockchain and artificial intelligence, which could further optimize the system's security, transparency, and efficiency. Furthermore, it proposes greater interconnection between the SINTIA systems of different countries to improve information exchange and reduce waiting times at customs. A key aspect of this improvement is leveraging bConnect, promoting its use as the preferred medium for data exchange, not only among Member States but also in trade relations between MERCOSUR and other regional blocs or countries.

• Integrated Control and Trade Facilitation Areas (juxtaposed customs)

Another achievement in customs integration has been the establishment of Integrated Control Areas (ICAs) at the main MERCOSUR border crossings. This initiative allows for immigration, customs, and health controls to be carried out at a single point, facilitating and expediting the transit of people and goods. The mechanism is based on the Recife Agreement and its First Additional Protocol, which regulate integrated controls between member countries and simplify customs procedures (GMC Decision 05/93 and GMC Resolution 29/2007).

Héctor Juárez, in his article “Coordinated Border Management in the Argentine Republic” (5), points out that the consolidation of these schemes is essential to improve customs efficiency and reduce logistics costs, aligning with international standards. At the global level, the World Customs Organization (WCO) supports this initiative through the Dublin Resolution, promoting the implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA). To this end, the WCO created the TFA Working Group (TFWG) and developed key tools, such as the Kyoto Convention (for customs simplification and harmonization), the SAFE Framework of Standards (2007), which fosters cooperation between Customs and the private sector, and the Coordinated Border Management Compendium, which compiles global best practices.

In Argentina, border integration is organized at three levels: with MERCOSUR (Recife Agreement and complementary regulations), with Bolivia (Bilateral Agreement on Integrated Controls, Law 25.253) and with Chile (Treaty on Integrated Controls, Law 25.229).

A prominent example is the Cristo Redentor System, the main land cargo crossing in South America, which handles more than 300.000 trucks and 2 million people annually, making it the second-highest transit point in Argentina, after Posadas-Encarnación. Although the single border crossing is crucial, ongoing coordination between agencies is strategic due to the diverse perspectives at border crossings. In this context, the importance of the National Committee on Trade Facilitation, established in Article 23.2 of the TFA, stands out as an essential tool for management and consensus-building.

• Preparation of the Mercosur Customs Code (CAM) 

From the early days of MERCOSUR, the need to harmonize the laws of the Member States (Article 1 of the Treaty of Asunción) was recognized in order to strengthen the integration process towards a common market. In this context, on December 16, 1994, in Ouro Preto, Brazil, CMC Decision 25/94 was signed, approving a draft MERCOSUR Customs Code composed of 186 articles, developed in 24 months by SGT 2, at the request of the Common Market Group. As Tristán Conde and Héctor H. Juárez (6) explain, the creation of the MERCOSUR Customs Code (CAM) began in the 90s, although the lack of consensus hampers its implementation. In 2010, the Member States finally approved the CAM through CMC Decision No. 27/10, marking a step forward towards customs integration. However, its full implementation faces obstacles: Argentina incorporated it into its legal system through Law No. 26.795 in 2012, Brazil adopted it with Legislative Decree No. 149/2018, but Paraguay has not yet incorporated it (for non-legal reasons), and Uruguay implemented its own Customs Code (based on the CAM) in 2014, without formally adopting the CAM (for non-legal reasons), despite the fact that both regulatory bodies had been submitted to Congress at the same time.

• Customs Information Exchange – INDIRA System

One of the most significant advances in MERCOSUR customs integration has been the strengthening of customs information exchange, a key tool for improving controls and combating illicit trade. This progress is based on CMC Decision No. 01/97, approved on June 18, 1997, which established the Agreement on Cooperation and Reciprocal Assistance among MERCOSUR Customs Administrations, aimed at preventing and combating customs crimes.

With the advancement of information technology in customs administrations, the need to update regulations arose, leading to the adoption of CMC Decision No. 26/06. This regulation established a modern legal framework for the exchange of information, allowing its transmission both ex officio and at the request of another State Party. Thus, the INDIRA System (Customs Records Information Exchange) was born, providing online, real-time access to key data, optimizing inspections and strengthening regional cooperation in the customs field.

Dr. Héctor Juárez, Member of the National Tax Court, detailed these advances in his article INDIRA: The Customs Records Information Exchange System in MERCOSUR (7), Analyzing its impact and benefits. The INDIRA System, launched in 2004 with GMC Resolution No. 54/04, establishes the interconnection of customs systems to share export and import data. Among its main benefits, it facilitates trade, strengthens the fight against customs violations, and optimizes resource allocation.

The system is constantly evolving and has served as a model for bilateral agreements with countries such as Chile, Bolivia, and Mexico. In 2019, the INDIRA-MODDA project was launched with the aim of expanding the customs information exchange model globally and ensuring system interoperability. This project adopts the WCO Data Model and establishes the technological framework for data exchange, including message formats (XML or JSON) and transmission options (Blockchain, WS, etc.).

The process began with CMC Decision No. 17/10, which introduced the MERCOSUR Single Customs Document (DUAM) as a common data model. In 2015, the MODDA project aligned MERCOSUR customs data with the WCO Data Model, and in 2021, GMC Resolution 9/2021 approved MODDA, mandating its incorporation into the systems of the Member States. This adaptation reinforces INDIRA's position as an international benchmark for customs management.

1.2. Block Expansion 

MERCOSUR celebrates a new anniversary marked by its intraregional expansion. On July 17, 2015, in Brasilia, the Protocol of Accession of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to MERCOSUR was signed (CMC Decision 13/15). Its article establishes that accession would enter into force 30 days after the deposit of the last instrument of ratification, including those signed previously that contain identical obligations and rights.

According to information from the depositary, Paraguay, Bolivia deposited its instrument of ratification on July 8, 2024, so the Protocol entered into force on August 7, 2024.

This is how Dr. Alejandro Perotti analyzes it in his work "Some immediate effects that arise with the entry into force of the Protocol of Accession of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to MERCOSUR", published in elDial.com.(8)

Bolivia acquires the status of State Party of MERCOSUR, with full rights and obligations, in accordance with Article 2 of the Treaty of Asunción and Article 11 of the Protocol of Accession (PABM). According to Dr. Alejandro Perotti, this will allow it to participate with voice and vote in all of the bloc's bodies and assume the pro tempore presidency in the second half of 2025.

The country must appoint representatives to the Permanent Review Tribunal (PRT) and submit its list of arbitrators. It will also have a maximum of four years to adopt the MERCOSUR regulatory framework, including the Common Nomenclature (CNN), the Common External Tariff (CET)—according to GMC Resolution 16/21—and the bloc's Regime of Origin, regulated by CMC Decisions 05/23 and 06/23.

Finally, Bolivia and the States Parties agree to move toward reciprocal free trade, providing for the elimination of Economic Complementation Agreement No. 36 (ACE 36) within a period of four years.

2. The MERCOSUR-European Union Agreement: a path full of obstacles

2.1. History of the negotiations

Negotiations for the bi-regional agreement between MERCOSUR and the European Union began in 1999, with the aim of addressing key areas such as politics, economics, trade, and cooperation. During the initial years, the rounds of negotiations, which ran from 2000 to 2002, laid the groundwork for a future Association Agreement. In 2004, the priority of reaching this agreement was reaffirmed, marking a milestone in the talks. Over the years, several rounds followed, with the 2015 round in Brussels being particularly noteworthy. In 2016, crucial offers related to market access, services, and government procurement were exchanged, culminating in the tenth round of negotiations. By 2017, a comprehensive proposal was presented that moved toward a final agreement. Finally, in 2019, a preliminary agreement was reached, although its ratification was delayed due to environmental concerns, particularly deforestation in the Amazon, and the trade policies of MERCOSUR countries.

2.2. Update of the Agreement

After years of arduous negotiations, on 6 December 2024, at the presidential summit held in Montevideo, Uruguay, the EU and MERCOSUR signed a historic agreement that will lead to the creation of the largest free trade area in the world, with a joint market of 780 million people, representing almost a quarter of global GDP.(9) This agreement, considered "state-of-the-art," covers not only trade in goods but also services, investments, and government procurement. It also establishes rules of origin and phytosanitary and animal health measures, boosting cooperation in several key areas.

2.3. Challenges for ratification

Despite the agreement's numerous benefits, such as institutional strengthening and predictability of trade rules, its ratification faces significant challenges. In Europe, some countries, such as France, have expressed concerns about unfair competition that could affect local farmers and the environmental impacts resulting from trade expansion. In Argentina, the agreement must be validated and ratified by Congress, as well as by the parliaments of the other MERCOSUR countries, before it can be definitively implemented. These obstacles underscore the complexity of the ratification process, despite the significant progress made..

3. Internal Tensions and External Relations

3.1. Diplomatic Crisis on the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway

This context of external tensions is complemented by the complex internal relations within MERCOSUR. The diplomatic crisis over the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway, which erupted in 2023, was triggered by Argentina's imposition of a unilateral toll on a key stretch of the Paraná River, vital to grain trade in the region. According to the Santa Fe Stock Exchange, (10)This measure originated in Resolution 625/2022 of the Argentine Ministry of Transportation, issued in September 2022, which established the collection of a toll for vessels sailing from the port of Santa Fe to its confluence with the Paraguay River. Furthermore, Resolution 1023/2022 confirmed the rates, and the toll began to be collected on January 1, 2023.

At the end of January 2023, Paraguay expressed its discontent, and Brazil, Uruguay, and Bolivia soon joined the protests. These countries, which depend on the waterway for their exports, considered the measure to violate the principle of free navigation, one of the pillars of international law. In response, a joint statement was submitted requesting the Argentine government to eliminate the toll, arguing that this measure contravened established international agreements for free movement in the La Plata Basin.

The conflict had significant repercussions in the region, especially for Paraguay, Brazil, and Bolivia, which depend on the flow of trade through the waterway. Paraguay, in particular, argued that the toll violated the principle of free navigation, while Brazil and Uruguay expressed concern about the economic implications. After intense negotiations, the parties reached an agreement that allowed the toll to continue being collected, but under modified conditions. These conditions were formalized through Resolution 161/2023 of the Argentine National Government, which redefined the original terms and ended the diplomatic crisis.

This episode revealed the internal tensions within MERCOSUR, highlighting the difficulties in achieving full economic and trade integration among member countries, especially when national interests collide with regional objectives.

3.2. Regional Integration vs. New Individual Trade Alliances

Likewise, Argentine President Javier Milei has reiterated on several occasions his intention to negotiate a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States. In his opening address to the regular sessions of Congress on March 1, 2025, (11)Milei reaffirmed her commitment to economic deregulation and trade liberalization, emphasizing the importance of advancing an agreement with the United States to reduce dependence on MERCOSUR.

This proposal conflicts with the rules governing relations within the regional bloc, particularly the 1991 Treaty of Asunción, which establishes that member countries must act jointly in trade negotiations with third countries. Article 1 of the Treaty stipulates that members must adopt a common trade policy, which means they cannot negotiate trade agreements individually without the approval of the other member countries.

The 1994 Ouro Preto Protocol, which formalized the institutional structure of MERCOSUR, reinforces this premise, stipulating that important decisions, such as the signing of trade agreements with third parties, must be made collectively. Furthermore, CMC Decision No. 32/00 reaffirms this commitment, focusing on agreements that grant tariff preferences to strengthen regional integration and joint negotiations with external actors.

Argentina's proposal to independently negotiate an FTA with the United States is causing internal tensions within Mercosur, especially with Brazil. Furthermore, this decision could complicate future trade relations within the bloc and with other international partners.

Dr. Félix Peña, in his January 2024 analysis,(12) He points out that MERCOSUR needs updating. He suggests three possible options: (1) dissolving MERCOSUR, which would entail high economic and political costs; (2) modifying the rules of the Treaty of Asunción, a complex process; or (3) improving the use of the current rules, optimizing cooperation without the need for a formal reform of the Treaty. Peña considers the third option the most viable, proposing strengthening the MERCOSUR Administrative Secretariat to facilitate joint decision-making and improve the coordination of national interests without modifying the Treaty.

José Gustavo Perego, Director of ABECEB, proposes a pragmatic solution in a note published on LinkedIn. (13), which highlights Brazil's experience during the Bolsonaro administration. During that period, Brazil implemented a unilateral tariff reduction on more than 6.000 NCM items, protected by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty. This measure contributed to diversifying imports, alleviating inflation, and addressing economic crises, demonstrating the effectiveness of flexible trade strategies in times of economic hardship. At the same time, Perego highlights Trump's mirror tariff policy, which seeks to promote trade reciprocity in response to the barriers imposed on US products.

Following this approach, Perego suggests that Argentina adopt a transitional strategy of temporary tariff reduction, protecting key sectors such as the automotive industry. This measure could improve purchasing power, facilitate exports, and serve as the basis for a bilateral agreement with the United States based on reciprocity and in accordance with WTO rules. According to Perego, the economic and social emergency would justify this decision without compromising the commitments made to MERCOSUR.

Together, both Peña's analysis and Perego's proposal contribute to how to address internal tensions within MERCOSUR and the possible alternatives for optimizing Argentina's trade relations with the U.S. and the rest of the world without compromising the regional bloc's internal stability.

4. The Intra-Mercosur Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA Plus):

4.1. Implementation pending

In addition to the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement, to which the six MERCOSUR member states have adhered, the bloc has developed a treaty that, at the regional level, deepens and complements the WTO Agreement, incorporating specific and specific actions (not as general and abstract) aimed at implementing mechanisms that facilitate intra-regional trade, with the aim of strengthening regional integration.

This agreement is known as the "plus" or "recharged" AFC, as it expands the general provisions with the implementation of concrete actions to optimize customs operations. This was explained by Dr. Héctor Juárez during the Customs Law Congress of the Universidad Austral, held on October 14, 2024.(14)

In this regard, and as an example, the speaker mentioned that the Agreement allows for the dispatch of goods within 12 business hours following their presentation in the green channel, or 48 business hours in the orange and red channels.

Or, the use of the WCO Clearance Time Study and Data Model, Coordinated Border Management, digitalization (paperless customs), and intensive use of information technologies.

The Agreement has 21 articles and was drafted in “the Mercosur customs plant" (Dr. Juárez "dixit"), that is, the Technical Committee No. 2 on Customs Affairs and Trade Facilitation of MERCOSUR.

Brazil presented its instrument of ratification on 11/10/24, and the Argentine Congress approved the Agreement on 21/10/24 (Law 27.766). Therefore, only ratification by the Argentine Executive Branch through its Ambassador in Paraguay is required for it to enter into force. This is because Article 21 of this Agreement provides that it enters into force sixty (60) days after the deposit of the instrument of ratification by the second MERCOSUR State Party, and its provisions will apply to the States Parties that have ratified. The next country to join could be the Eastern Republic of Uruguay, since its Executive Branch submitted the bill to Congress on May 14, 2024.  

4.2. Benefits for the States Parties

A clear example of the benefits derived from trade facilitation in MERCOSUR is the case of Brazil, which has been a pioneer in the implementation of the SISCOMEX system. This system, launched in 2014, digitizes documents and automates customs processes, which has significantly reduced clearance times. Since 2023, Brazil has begun the digitalization of imports, with a full transition planned for December 2024. At an ALADI seminar in October 2024, Tiago Barbosa, Trade Facilitation Coordinator, (15) He highlighted the progress made, including collaboration with more than 1,500 companies and the integration of innovative technologies such as artificial intelligence and blockchain. Thanks to these advances, import times have been reduced from 13 to 5 days and export times from 17 to 9 days, generating an estimated savings of $40,000 billion. These results underscore the positive impact of digitalization and automation on the competitiveness and efficiency of Brazil's foreign trade.

4.3. Pending challenges in the internalization of the Agreement

A crucial aspect for advancing the full implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) in the region is the Study on Coordinated Border Management in MERCOSUR. (16), prepared by the PROCOMEX Institute at the request of MERCOSUR Technical Committee No. 2 (TC 2), responsible for customs and trade facilitation issues within the bloc. This study, financed by the World Bank, included the participation of 568 representatives from 274 companies, 49 business associations, and 266 delegates from 41 public agencies, reflecting a broad commitment from the private and government sectors to optimizing border procedures. The research identifies critical areas requiring improvement, with particular emphasis on the modernization of border infrastructure and the training of customs personnel. Optimizing these elements is essential for achieving greater efficiency and coordination in border management, a necessary step for more fluid and effective customs integration within MERCOSUR.

In closing,

MERCOSUR is at a crossroads, facing both internal and external challenges that threaten its cohesion and efficiency. However, the bloc has the opportunity to overcome these obstacles through infrastructure modernization, customs personnel training, and the implementation of the Intra-Mercosur Trade Facilitation Agreement. MERCOSUR's ability to adapt and optimize its internal processes will be crucial to maintaining its global competitiveness, fostering better collaboration aligned with the challenges of the smart age.

---

References: 

1. Tristán Conde, T., & Juárez, H.H. (2016). Mercosur's Customs Footprints: A Practical Guide. Ed. Tarifar.

2. Russo, A. (July 2024, 19). 24 Hours Before the New Mercosur Origin Regime Comes into Force: Some Answers to Questions About Operations and the Transition. Aduana News. https://aduananews.com/a-24-horas-de-entrada-en-vigor-del-nuevo-regimen-de-origen-mercosur-algunas-respuestas-a-dudas-sobre-la-operatoria-y-la-transicion

3. Canta Yoy, C. (2024). The New Mercosur Origin Regime comes into force. Report prepared by the advisor on ALADI, Mercosur, and Origen to the CDA.

4. Juárez Allende, H. (2023, April 28). SINTIA. International Customs Transit Information System. https://aduananews.com/sintia-sistema-informatico-de-transito-internacional-aduanero/

5. Juárez, H. (n.d.). Coordinated Border Management in the Argentine Republic. Trade News.https://tradenews.com.ar/gestion-coordinada-de-fronteras/#google_vignette

6. Tristán Conde and Héctor H. Juárez (2016). “MERCOSUR Customs: 25 Years of History.” El Derecho 

7. Juárez Allende, H. (2023, January 5). INDIRA. The Customs Records Information Exchange System in MERCOSUR.https://aduananews.com/el-sistema-de-intercambio-de-informacion-de-los-registros-aduaneros-en-el-mercosur/

8. Perotti, A. (n.d.)(2024). Some immediate effects arising from the entry into force of the Protocol of Accession of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to MERCOSUR. elDial.com.

9.Juarez Allende, H. (n.d.). Customs aspects of the MERCOSUR-EU Agreement. Aduana News. Retrieved from https://aduananews.com/aspectos-aduaneros-del-acuerdo-mercosur-union-europea/

10. Santa Fe Stock Exchange. (December 2023). Diplomatic conflict over the Paraná-Paraguay Waterway.

11. Milei, J. (2025, March 1). Speech in the National Congress https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/slider-principal/50873-discurso-del-presidente-milei-en-apertura-del-143-periodo-de-sesiones-ordinarias-del-congreso

12.Peña, F. (2024, January). The current validity of the accumulated experience of MERCOSUR. http://www.felixpena.com.ar/index.php?contenido=negociaciones&neagno=informes/2024-01-validez-actual-experiencia-acumulada-mercosur

13. Perego, JG Brazil shows Milei the way to a free trade agreement with Trump. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/jos%C3%A9-gustavo-p%C3%A9rego-3bb5031a_brasil-bolsonaro-aperturacomercial-activity-7309284473609555968-Kk5x/?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_android&rcm=ACoAABi4ST8BBfGvFeeWHB-iOxWNZgPdAQFlIDg

14. Aduana News. (October 18, 2024). At the Universidad Austral, experts analyzed customs control in globalization (Part 1). Retrieved from https://aduananews.com/en-la-universidad-austral-expertos-analizaron-el-control-aduanero-en-la-globalizacion-parte-1/

15. Aduana News. (October 8, 2024). Brazilian authorities explore interoperability and risk management at an ALADI seminar.https://aduananews.com/autoridades-de-brasil-abordan-la-interoperabilidad-y-la-gestion-de-riesgos-en-un-seminario-de-la-aladi/

16. Procomex Institute. (n.d.). Systematization of the holistic vision of Coordinated Border Management in MERCOSUR. Retrieved from https://www.procomex.org